2004 CLTA Annual Meeting Abstracts
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Chinese is described linguistically as a typical discourse-oriented language. Structures and strategies pertaining to discourse organization are crucial to the acquisition of the language as well as natural and effective communication. This panel gathers four papers on the teaching and acquisition of discourse-related features of the Chinese language. The first paper provides a general view of the specific elements of discourse structures of Chinese and demonstrates how these structures can be integrated into the pedagogical system and curriculum design in L2 teaching. The second paper is on the teaching of natural conversation. It discusses the variety of devices used in Chinese to delay and repair speech and how these strategies can be taught as part of natural speech to improve conversational proficiency. The third paper reports on an empirical study of the acquisition of the topic chain by native speakers of English. It involves a cross-sectional examination of the acquisition procedure and an analysis of the contributing factors. The fourth paper is more analytical in nature. It compares the most frequently used form of topic chains with its seemingly equivalent structure in English to demonstrate that, in order to learn to use topic chains in Chinese, students with English L1 have to learn to shift their coding strategies from the clause level to the discourse level.
Instruction and Acquisition of Discourse Structures
Janet Zhiqun Xing, Western Washington University
In the field of teaching Chinese as a second language, there is a general consensus that discourse is hard to be specified and difficult to teach and learn. As a result, many teachers avoid incorporating discourse elements into their Chinese language curriculum. This paper aims to lay out specific elements of Chinese discourse structures and discuss various strategies in teaching and learning these structures. Our goal is to help Chinese teachers eliminate the fear of teaching discourse so that they treat discourse structures the same as any other grammatical elements in Chinese classes.
Discourse structures may be categorized into four types: pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar, and cohesion. Pronunciation covers areas that deal with the interaction of discourse and sound, such as word stress and pauses, reduction and contraction, tone Sandhi, problematic initials, and finals. Vocabulary involves the discourse function of new words, specialized words, transition words, etc. Grammar includes condition, assumption, suggestion, etc. Finally, cohesion focuses on topic chains. The paper will then discuss how to integrate these four types of discourse structures into the curricular of Elementary, Intermediate and Advanced Chinese and how to build a grammatical system along with other grammatical elements. The third part of the paper will focus on issues relevant to teaching and learning discourse structures. Actual teaching and learning activities will be provided to show that discourse skill is absolutely necessary for students to successfully communicate in Chinese.
Delaying and Repair Strategies in Conversation and Spoken Language Teaching
Hongyin Tao, UC Los Angeles
One of the major distinctions between constructed spoken texts and natural conversation is the use of delaying and repair strategies. Native conversation is replete with delays (hesitation, pauses, and so forth) and repairs (reformulations and corrections), yet theoretical linguists and language teachers rarely treat them as something worthy of attention if not downright pitiful. However, as Conversation Analysts have shown, there is much regularity in conversation delaying strategies and repair mechanisms (Schegloff 1979, Schegloff et al. 1977, Fox et al. 1996). Drawing on previous research in Chinese conversation analysis, in this talk I discuss (1) the variety of devices that native Mandarin speakers use to delay and repair speech and (2) how these elements can be implemented in spoken Chinese language teaching. I will focus especially on the use of interjections (e.g. ai (呃) and de (得)), negative adverbials (e.g. bu (不)), and affirmative tokens (e.g. dui (对) and show why an awareness of these strategies is so vital in improving the proficiency level of learners.
L2 Acquisition of Chinese Topic Chains: Developmental Sequence and Contributing Factors
Yun Xiao, University of Massachusetts at Amherst
In Chinese discourse domain, the basic unit of communication is topic chain, formed by a sequence of topic-comment constructions, in which the controlling topic licenses the deletion of pronominalized coreferential NPs in order to maintain the discourse coherence (Tsao 1979). Studies in language processing show that languages differ in their discourse pattern and that L2 learners tend to transfer their L1 discourse processing strategies into L2 (Tao and Healy, 1998). Thus, it is anticipated that CFL learners with an L1 such as English, which does not allow NP deletion in obligatory contexts, would exert unacceptable redundancy or grammar errors beyond the sentence level, as reported in the recent CFL study(Cui, 2003). By examining how they manipulate Chinese topic chains, this study intends to explore how CFL learners develop Chinese discourse competence in conjunction with grammar competence over time and how their L1 influences such development. Around 120 CFL students at three instructional levels (beginning, intermediate, advanced) will participate in this study. Data for analysis will be drawn from two discourse transformation tests, which ask the participants to modify passages with coherent NPs (i.e., nouns, pronouns, or zero anaphora). Such tests will reveal how much the participants know the form and function of Chinese topic chains, how they track the discourse references, and how their L1 influences the reference tracking processes. The testing items will be Chinese passages selected from the participants' teaching materials and adapted to meet the research needs. Data analysis will be both quantitative and qualitative.
Teaching Topic Chains to Reflect the Coding Strategy of the Chinese Language
Wendan Li, UNC at Chapel Hill
The topic chain is a high-frequency structure in Chinese that involves clause-integration, a universal mechanism to code inter-clausal relationship and discourse coherence (Givón, 1993; Haiman & Thompson, 1988). Due to the fact that languages exert different criteria for the sanction of clause integration, differences between L1 and L2 in this area constitute part of the L2 acquisition task. Studies have shown that the use of topic chains is an area of weakness in L2 learning of Chinese, yet it receives very little attention in teaching (Bai, 1997; Chu, 1990; Jin, 1994; Xie, 1992). Since a typical topic chain such as 我坐下來，點了兩個菜。can be translated into English as ‘I sat down and ordered two dishes’, it gives the false impression that these two structures are of the same type. In the proposed paper, I compare these two structures to demonstrate that they are in fact structural mechanisms on different levels. While topic chains in Chinese code topic continuity and have a much larger capacity accommodating various syntactic constructions and predications, the English structure exerts limiting conditions such as continuity in temporal reference and types of predications. The most fundamental difference is that the English structure is strictly a sentence level operation, whereas the topic chain works on the level of discourse. The goal in L2 teaching is to explain such differences and help students shift their coding strategy from the clause level to the discourse level.
On-line Chinese Placement Test: Assessing All Four Skills
Panel Chair: Meng Yeh
In this panel, we will introduce an online Chinese Placement Test, designed by the Chinese faculty of the Center for the Study of Languages at Rice University. Based on ACTFL guidelines. the Placement Test assesses listening, speaking, writing and reading proficiency. This Placement Test is used to place incoming students into appropriate Chinese language classes. The Test is created in ExTemplate 2.1, a Rice multimedia web-authoring program which features online record keeping accessible to both students and instructors. The presenters in this panel will discuss the development, implementation and technical requirements in creating a Chinese placement test in ExTemplate 2.1.
The Development of the Rice Online Chinese Placement Test
Meng Yeh, Rice University
This paper provides an overview of the development of this online placement test. We designed the placement test with three considerations. The test evaluates four skills, can be accessed online, and is a proficiency test based on the ACTFL guidelines. The paper presents a survey of current available computer-aided placement tests. The survey leads us to conclude that there is no test that meets our need. The current test was designed by the faculty members who are in the process of obtaining their OPI certification. This online test was submitted to ACTFL for review in June 2003. This paper will also discuss the ACTFL reviewer’s comments and how it can be improved. Lastly, the paper explicates the pilot test in the spring and the result of the first official use of the test in the summer of 2003.
The Implementation of the Rice Online Chinese Placement Test
Chaomei Shen, Rice University
This part of the panel will explain how the Rice Online Chinese Placement Test was implemented and will showcase testing questions and results at different levels in different sections. The placement test includes four sections, with each section testing a specific language skill. In all four sections the tasks are gradational, moving from novice-level questions, intermediate, advanced, up to superior level based on the ACTFL’s proficiency guidelines. ExTemplate 2.1 automatically grades the listening and reading parts and we will expound the criteria for grading the speaking and writing sections. We will also demonstrate testing questions at various levels in all four sections and show samples of students’ testing results. Other procedures used for the test will also be covered.
On-line Proficiency Test in ExTemplate
Claire Bartlett, Rice University
We plan on demonstrating how to create a Chinese on-line test using ExTemplate, a Rice web course management tool, allowing users to assess all four language skills. Four years ago, faculty from the Rice Center for the Study of Languages developed and implemented on-line placement/proficiency tests in Japanese, French, German, Portuguese and Spanish. Once the tests are completed, they are submitted to ACTFL for review, calibrated, and then implemented. Last year for the first time Rice offered the Chinese on-line placement/proficiency test to incoming freshmen who took it prior to coming to campus. ExTemplate enables instructors to create a variety of multimedia exercise types: multiple choice, fill-in the blank, matching, essay, and “speaking”questions. Audio and video files of various formats as well as web pages can easily be embedded. A user-friendly grading system allows for team grading and comments. Once a test is graded, students receive an automatic e-mail informing them that results are available. We are currently sharing ExTemplate and the tests with institutions interested in collaborating. We will describe the technical requirements and explain contractual procedures to follow.
Towards Collaborative Learning: The Implementation of Peer Response in Online Courses
Haidan Wang, University of Hawaii
Student peer response has been recognized as an effective and beneficial activity (Liu and Hansen 2002) in enhancing student’s confidence (Braine 1997) and reducing anxiety (Fanderclai 1995) in foreign language learning. Previous studies indicate that interaction among peer students in traditional classrooms affords additional means in provoking linguistic production and enhancing language proficiency.
In an online course, how to implement peer response, how peer response differs from that conducted in regular classrooms, what a role instructor should play in organizing and leading this activity, and, how effective such an activity may be in facilitating teaching and learning, are important questions in promoting collaborative learning. This paper will report an experimental study on these issues conducted in two intermediate Chinese online courses at the University of Hawaii. Transcripts of student online discussion before and after the implementation of this activity will be compared and analyzed. In addition to answering the above questions, the following issues will also be addressed: (a) How should students be grouped for collaborative study? (b) What criteria can be set for successful online instruction? (c) How to ensure students’ sensitivity and responsibility for their peers’ work? (d) What are the potential problems and solutions in conducting this activity?
Empirical Studies on CFL Acquisition: Orthography and Syntax
Panel Chair: Helen H. Shen
This panel includes three empirical studies, from the learning development perspective, reporting the learning behaviors and patterns of CFL learners in the process of acquisition of orthographic and syntactic knowledge.
The first study investigates the developmental trends among the learners of the first-year Chinese in acquiring radical knowledge. This study exams the quantitative differences in acquiring three linguistic features of semantic radical knowledge—the sound, shape, and meaning, the connections between the mastery of radical knowledge and character learning, and the qualitative and quantitative differences between learners with good and poor radical knowledge on the performances of weekly character quizzes.
The second study is to validate the orthographic developmental model among non-native learners proposed by Ke (1996, 2002) by closely examining non-native intermediate learners in three areas: the developmental patterns in awareness of and ability to use orthographic structure of semantic-phonetic components, the type of graphic structure of a character (top-down vs. left-right) affects character acquisition, and how the learner’s knowledge of orthographic structure contribute to character acquisitions and reading comprehension.
The third study, at discourse level, explores the acquisition patterns of the particle “le” across learning levels. By comparing and contrasting the similarities and differences among learners in different learning groups as well as with the native speakers of Chinese, the study intends to find out the developmental trends in the acquisition of “le,” the relationship between students’ passive knowledge of “le” and the actual usage of “le” at discourse level, and the patterns in the usage of “le” in marking the peak event and anteriority in discourse.
The Development of Radical Knowledge and Its Impact on Character Acquisition among Beginning CFL Learners
Helen H. Shen, University of Iowa
The purpose of this study is to investigate the development of sub-morphemic awareness affects character learning among non-native college students in the beginning level Chinese class. Chinese is considered a monosyllabic language in which one spoken syllable represents one morpheme--the character. About 90% of Chinese characters belong to compound characters. Each compound character contains at least two (or more) sub-morphemes which are refereed as radicals. The radicals can be divided into two major categories: semantic radicals and phonetic radicals. The semantic radical, in principle, cues to the meaning of a compound character and the phonetic radical to the pronunciation. Recent studies in cognitive processing of Chinese have revealed the existence of sub-morphemic processing in character recognition. That is, the recognition of Chinese compound characters is affected by the semantic analysis of the sub-morphemes that the compound character contains. Predicated on this theoretical framework, the current study investigate the developmental trends in acquiring semantic radical knowledge and in applying this knowledge to character learning in a year-long learning period. To be specific, this study answers three research questions: 1. Are there any statistical differences among mastering semantic radicals with regard to their three linguistic components--the sound, shape, and meaning in beginning level learning? Are there any linear trends between the radical knowledge and the performance on character recognition and production? Are there any quantitative and qualitative differences between the learners with poor and good radical knowledge in the weekly character quizzes? Subjects are 30 English-speaking college students enrolled in the first-year Chinese class with no Chinese background prior to the study. Students’ radical knowledge to be measured twice per semester and their character knowledge to be measure on a weekly basis. Regression will be used for trend analyses and ANOVA will be used to detect the differences among the groups being compared (e.g. the differences in mastering three linguistic components of radicals and the differences between poor and good readers in character recognition and production task). Pedagogical implications of the results of this study will be briefly discussed.
Orthography and Reading Competence Development Among Intermediate Learners of Chinese as a Foreign Language
Chuanren Ke, University of Iowa
Among children learning to read Chinese as a first written language, the ability to recognize and capitalize on the orthographic structure of semantic-phonetic compound characters increases through the elementary school years (Shu & Anderson, 1997; Shu, Anderson, & Wu, 2000). Readers acquiring Chinese as a foreign language (CFL) face special challenges in learning to read a character-based script given its opaque relationship between sound and form. Ke (1996, 2002) proposed a model of the development of orthographic awareness which states that learners of Chinese as a foreign language acquire this awareness in three successive stages: the pre-component processing stage, in which learners primarily learn characters as wholes without much component processing, the component processing stage, in which learners already have accumulated a substantial number of characters in their long-term memory and habitually apply their knowledge of the structures of the orthographic system to character identification and naming, and the automatic component processing stage, at the high end of which learners’ orthographic awareness is native-like.
The purpose of the present study is to validate Ke’s model in three areas: 1) How awareness of and ability to use orthographic structure of semantic-phonetic components develop in a group of American university students enrolling in a second-year Chinese class. 2) Whether the type of graphic structure of a character, top-down vs. left-right, is a factor in character acquisition. 3) How this knowledge of character component and effect of orthographic structure contribute to the acquisition of characters and reading comprehension. The orthographic knowledge data will be collected by the administration of a character recognition test consisting of 60 compound characters selected from the second-year textbook. The test will be administered twice to the same group of students: one at the end of the second-year first semester and the other at the end of the second semester. The reading comprehension data will be collected from six monthly-tests throughout the entire academic year from this group of subject. T-tests will be employed to assess the difference between the naming and meaning identification of the character components and to compare the differences in processing the two graphic structures. Correlation analysis will be used to determine degree of connection among character component knowledge, type of graphic structures, character recognition, and reading comprehension.
Discourse Functions of le and its Acquisition by American Learners
Lixia Ma, University of Iowa
In a non-inflectional language of Mandarin Chinese, le as a perfective aspect marker indicating temporal relationship has its unique status and therefore received much attention in research. To investigate how American learners of Chinese acquire the aspect marker, the current study examines the characteristics of the interlanguage of learners from different language proficiency levels. By comparing and contrasting the similarities and differences among these different groups of learners, we hope to find the learning curve and acquisition patterns in the acquisition of le in discourse.
The current research revisits the acquisition of le from a discourse perspective, that is, in the longer domain of sentence functioning as the marker for the peak event and the anteriority (Chu, 1987). It searches the answers to the question of what patterns exist in the acquisition of three discourse functions in marking the peak event, anteriority, and end-of-sentence. It also looks into the question of what relationship is there between the knowledge of le and the actual usage of le at discourse.
Both knowledge data and production data from learners of Chinese are collected. The knowledge data is gathered through a multiple-choice cloze task, and the production data of learner’s actual usage of le is obtained from learners’ narration of a series of pictures consisting of a story. The data are then coded and analyzed. With the use of both quantitative and qualitative analyses, the study hopes to reach a thorough understanding of the acquisition of le at discourse level.
A New Research Perspective on Traditional vs. Simplified Character Learning for CFL Students
Chia-hui Ch’iu, University of Iowa
One of the more persistent issues in the Chinese as a foreign language (CFL) community is whether traditional or simplified characters are easier for our students to learn. Yet, difficulties inherent in designing research to answer this question have prevented us from arriving at definitive conclusions. This presentation will therefore take a slightly different approach to investigating this problem by not comparing the merits and drawbacks of each character set, but by attempting to understand the learning task confronting CFL students when they begin learning simplified characters after already mastering their traditional counterparts. This, then, reflects the student task in at least one pedagogical tradition whereby students learn simplified characters at a later time that represent the traditional characters they have already mastered. For this presentation, popular CFL textbooks will be analyzed to determine what percentage of characters are the same in both traditional and simplified forms; and what percentage of the characters are simplified and categorized according to various standardized simplification schemes, the principles of which may be easier or harder for students to grasp. Based upon these findings, an empirical research agenda will be put forward to describe and test a simplified character learning model.
How to Integrate Classical and Modern Chinese in Instruction
Panel Chair: Chih-ping Chou
Classical Chinese and Modern Chinese have often been regarded as two different languages in the field of teaching Chinese as a foreign language. A peculiar phenomenon that has occurred in the field is that Classical Chinese, the most advanced course in an institution's curriculum, is often taught with the least Chinese involved. A course entitled Introduction to Classical Chinese is actually very similar to a course that focuses on the translation of Chinese Classics. This panel will analyze the current status of Classical Chinese instruction and argue that Modern Chinese is a continuity, not a discontinuity of Classical Chinese and thus, the best instructional language for teaching a Classical Chinese course is through the use of Modern Chinese and not through English translation.
An Analysis of the Current Status of Classical Chinese Instruction in the USA
Chih-Ping Chou, Princeton University
This paper will give a critical evaluation and an introduction to the current status of Classical Chinese instruction in the USA, which will consist of the following sections:
a) A brief history of the instruction of Classical Chinese in the USA.
b) A review of current available teaching materials.
c) What the best instructional language is in teaching classical Chinese.
d) Suggestions for improvement.
Teaching Grammar in Traditional Chinese Literature Reading
Xia Liang, Washington University at St. Louis
古代文学作品选读课(文言文课)的教学内容基本上包括两大部分，一是通过课堂教学，使学生能够借助现代汉语和英文的注解读懂古代文学作品的原著节选；二是结合文学作品的内容与背景材料，进行相关话题的课堂讨论。而要帮助学生读懂文言短文，除了指导学生掌握许多常用词的用法以外，还应结合文章的内容介绍和归纳文言的常见语法现象，从而达到举一反三的效果。
具体来讲，文言文课语法教学的内容包括以下几个方面：1、词类活用：主要包括动词活用为名词；名词活用为动词；形容词活用为动词与名词以及数词活用为动词等。2、常见虚词的用法举例：之、其、夫、然、焉、诸、而、则、者、所、也、于等等。3、文言句法的特点：特殊语序，被动的表示法，判断句的形式，省略，等等。
文言文语法教学的方式是多种多样的，但最终是为读懂原文，提高阅读能力服务的。在教学中较为常见的方法有举例说明法，即大量引用所学课文中出现的句子，归纳出某一类词、或者某一类句子的特点，加深学生对该语法现象的理解。其次是翻译练习法，即把文言文翻译成现代汉语。第三是重复复习法，比如“之”字有多种用法，可以在学习新用法的同时，复习旧的用法。最后是课堂讨论法。组织学生归纳、讲解和讨论某些语法现象和规律。
Understanding and Teaching Classical Chinese Function Words
Yongping Zhu, University of Wisconsin-Madison
高年级的汉语教材大多是从报刊和文章中摘选而来, 在课文中常常会出现一些不见于现代口语中的文言虚词. 由于这些虚词在用法上和词义上往往和现代汉语的同类虚词都有或多或少的不同, 如何理解并教授这些虚词是每一个教高年级老师必须面对的问题. 本文将通过一个具体的例子来解释在高级汉语中常常出现的连词像"及", "以及" 和"及其" 跟现代汉语的连词在用法上和语义上有何不同, 进而从"及" 的语法化过程来探讨产生这些不同的原因. 本文认为出现在高级现代汉语中的文言虚词由于其言简义赅却表现力丰富, 有些语法作用非同类的现代汉语虚词可以替代, 故这些文言虚词虽死于现代汉语的口语里, 却活跃于报刊文章的书面语中. 了解了高级汉语中的文言虚词的特点, 我们便可以更好地设计教授方法.
The Combination of Classical and Modern Chinese in Language Teaching
Wei Wang, Princeton University
现代汉语的口语和书面语的界限是相当模糊的。 一方面在大量的固定形式中仍然存在着古代汉语的的表达方式，一方面人们在口语中也往往不能完全避免所谓书面语言的出现。事实上，我们的语言教材本身就体现着古今与雅俗的结合，这样的现象比比皆是。而这个特点不仅限于高年级教材，以普大为例，二年级就已经涉及到一定的书面用法。可以说，有些比较“古”的词语在现代汉语中仍然焕发着活力。本文将以古汉语连词“而”为突破口，说明它和今天一些相应的连词并存的事实， 并讨论它们在搭配上、运用上的一些特色。学生的作文为本文的发现提供了有趣的依据。从学生习作的错误中我们正可以思考如何教授这类“老而不衰”的词语，如何既避免错误，又鼓励学生生动地使用中文
Standards-Based Teaching Units for K-12 Chinese Classes
Panel Chair: Lucy Lee
The purpose of this panel is to share the best curriculum units selected from the CLASS-Fulbright Summer Study Abroad Program. Three presenters who also won the Digital Starlight Award will explore with participants their best design of “standards-based teaching units.” They will demonstrate integrated thematic units that fulfill the five major goals of the national standards, engage students, and maximize the use of authentic materials through technology. Rationale for and creation of integrated thematic units will be discussed, along with suggestions for alternative assessments. Participants will receive handouts with examples.
Performance-based Activities for Elementary School Students
April Song, George Jackson Elementary School, Jericho, NY
Standards-based thematic units engage students in a variety of performance tasks. The presenter will demonstrate how to use thematic unit lessons to teach the Chinese language culture to younger learners at the elementary school level. This session offers ideas that work and useful materials for K-4 Chinese classes. Sample unit lessons will be presented as well.
Learning Chinese Through TPR Storytelling – A Model Lesson for Middle-school Students
Yuancho Meng, Oak Hill Middle School, Newton, MA
Thematic units are a wonderful way to bring together the national and state foreign language standards and the local curriculum with instructional activities that result in effective language acquisition. The thematic unit “Five Brothers” is a Chinese folk tale that promotes traditional family values. The presenter will demonstrate the unit step by step through TPR storytelling and discuss strategies for designing thematic units and lessons.
Standards-based Module Lesson for High School Students
Jeannie Subisak, Columbus Academy, Gahanna, OH
Sharing a module lesson on Chinese banquet, the presenter will describe the uniquely powerful ways in which thematic instruction can address the standards in the Chinese language curriculum. This session will examine the rationale behind designing thematic units and lessons. The presenter will also share her experience in developing the thematic curriculum unit. Sample lessons will be provided to session participants.
Integrating Technology into Chinese Material Design
Panel Chair: Fang-yi Chao
Modern technology has brought to the field of foreign language education revolutionary techniques for material design. However, integrating modern technology into Chinese material design is an extremely complicated task due to the special characteristics of the language, both in its spoken form and in its writing system. This panel addresses three issues concerning incorporating modern technology in Chinese language instruction, i.e., a computerized phonetic spelling system, web-based activities design, and web activities evaluation. As Mandarin Chinese is a tonal language, how to create a computerized phonetic spelling system (either pinyin Romanization or zhuyin fuhao) to automatically and accurately add to Chinese characters has been one of the challenges to computer assisted instruction in the Chinese language. In addition, how to create effective Chinese web-based activities to facilitate students to develop skills and strategies has also drawn language instructors’ attention. Furthermore, what activity types are available and what makes an activity useful and effective are essential as well as significant topics in studying modern technology and language instruction. This panel discusses problems in these three stages of material design, i.e., from material preparation with phonetic spelling systems, to activities design, then to activities evaluation, and proposes ways to improve integrating technology into Chinese material design.
Activity Types for Learning Chinese on the Web
Tao-chung Yao, University of Hawaii
As the internet era grows, more and more educational websites become available online. Some of the websites are specially designed for the learning of Chinese. As the number of Chinese language instructional websites increases, the number of online activity types also increases. Some activities on the Web, such as multiple-choice and fill-in-blanks, are two commonly-used exercise types in textbooks. There are also activities on the Web, such as sequencing sentences, drag and drop, and matching, which take advantage of the computer technology, moving beyond what a book can offer. In this paper, I will introduce different activity types that are currently seen on the Web for learning Chinese. I shall discuss the merits of each activity type, and also make suggestions on how to increase the pedagogical value of certain activities.
Creating Web-based Activities for Chinese Language Instruction: Principles and Applications
Fang-yi Chao, University of Colorado
Modern technology, especially the World Wide Web, has provided language learners as well as language instructors with easy access to authentic materials. Due to the multidimensional and extensible features of the hypertext, which links information without spatial limitation, creating web-based activities has became one of the current trends in language material development. This paper evaluates the potential advantages of using web-based activities in Chinese language instruction, and discusses the principles of creating web-based activities, including material selection as well as material evaluation. To illustrate the benefits that the web-based activities can offer for Chinese language teaching and learning, this paper also discusses the applications of the web-based activities, including skill and strategy developments. Sample activities are given to demonstrate how to create and how to appropriately utilize web-based activities in Chinese language instruction.
Zhuyin Right in MS-Word: Introducing the Design and Functions of a ZhuyinSoftware Program
Cheng-zhi Chu, Stanford University
Jiazhu yinbiao(hereafter “zhuyin”)-- adding pinyin (or BoPoMoFo or other sound spelling schemas) to characters is a frequently engaged activity in Chinese teaching material preparation. Currently there are a number of software programs which have zhuyin function and thus provide great convenience for Chinese teaching. However, for many reasons, ‘how to zhuyin right’ so as to meet linguistic standards and pedagogical needs is still a question.
This paper addresses five issues that currently challenge the development of a zhuyin software program: 1) How to select the right pinyin (or other zhuyin schemas) for a polyphonic word in a text? 2) How to make zhuyin orthographically right with regard to, for example, word segmentation, capitalization, and hyphenation? 3) How to make the zhuyin file compatible in fonts and format with popular word processors such as MS-Word? 4) How to provide flexibility for changing pinyin-character arrangements according to users’ needs? 5) How to match pinyin with the corresponding characters/words in a document?
With demonstration, this paper also introduces a zhuyin software program which aims to meet the challenges listed above and ‘zhuyin right in MS-Word’.
Building Chinese Vocabulary on the Flash
Song Jiang, University of Hawaii
Vocabulary is central to language and of importance to language learners. How to facilitate students to internalize vocabulary is of every teacher’s concern. However, teachers are often frustrated that vocabulary building in textbooks is limited to memorization of individual words, but lacks of facilities and pedagogical guidance. This talk will introduce an innovative set of flashcards aimed at helping students to master vocabulary systematically. This flashcard set is designed by the presenter and to be published by Cheng-Tsui in 2004.
The talk will begin with an introduction to a database containing vocabulary from seven commonly used Chinese textbooks in the U.S., and HSK Level I vocabulary, and present the statistic foundation on which these cards were built. Then we will discuss the pedagogical concept behind these cards with a review of vocabulary learning theories, such as word association, semantic map, etc. We will also illustrate and exemplify various features of these cards: their layout, format and content, words coverage, intended users, special index and word frequency in textbooks, and study strategies. In conclusion, we argue that with this card set in hand, students can master Chinese words quickly, effectively and systematically by relating them to other words with common characters, meanings, and linguistic features.
Field Building and Creative Language Teaching
Panel Chair: Claudia Ross
The Chinese Language Field Initiative: A Summary Report
Scott McGinnis, Defense Language Institute-Washington Office
Between 2001 and 2004, the National Council of Organizations of Less Commonly Taught Languages (NCOLCTL), in collaboration with the Chinese Language Teachers Association (CLTA) and the Chinese Language Association of Secondary-Elementary Schools (CLASS), undertook a collaborative project entitled The Chinese Language Field Initiative (CLFI). The purpose of CLFI was to strengthen the architecture of the Chinese language field at all levels in the United States.
Following a yearlong development process, a national survey on the Chinese language field in the United States was disseminated beginning in January of 2003. It addressed elements including instructional design, teacher development, learner populations, research and standards. The ultimate goal of the survey was to provide the empirical means by which to make well-justified decisions regarding strategic planning for the improvement of Chinese language learning and teaching in all instructional settings.
The presentation will provide summary reports on the major findings of the survey and the strategic plan for the development of the Chinese language field generated by the results of that survey. It will also provide a brief overview of ChineseNet, a WWW-based system designed to enable the sharing of Chinese language learning resources on a national level.
Chinese Language Studies: The State of the Field
Claudia Ross, College of the Holy Cross
The recently released MLA survey of language study at US colleges and universities shows a 20% increase in enrollment in Chinese language classes over the past four years. This is due in part to an overall increase in foreign language study in US post-secondary schools. But Chinese language enrollment is motivated by more specific factors, including the growing economic and strategic importance of greater China on the world’s stage, and we can anticipate a steady increase in Chinese language enrollment through the next decade.
This presentation provides an overview of the field that may help in planning to meet the challenges of this growth.* It focuses on the following areas:
(1) the current state of language study, including the breadth of study across the top 200 universities and colleges in the US, the commitment to Chinese language programs in terms of tenure track positions in post-secondary institutions, and the breadth of study abroad opportunities for advanced learning,
(2) support for Chinese language study including foundation support for program building and scholarship support for language study,
(3) conflicts in the field, such as the ‘hot button’ issues of proficiency and character production as pedagogical goals.
(4) challenges to the field such as the length of language study required for mastery, and the status of language study and language teaching within the field of Asian Studies.
*(The data for this paper was collected by the author over a two-year period. General information comes from public sources such as websites and reports. Language program information has been obtained from the web, with follow-up queries to program coordinators and language faculty.)
Establishing a “Global Chinese Language and Culture Center ” with Standards of SCORM and LOM
Fengzhu Luo, Taiwan Yuanzhi University
僑委會全球華文網路教育中心經過幾年的努力，已累積相當規模的各式華語文教學資源，近五年來更致力於實施華語文教材的數位化與分享化，應用IT資訊技術，結合語文教學專業，配合行政管理，強化華語文教育推廣，建立網路中文數位學苑（e-school）。本文旨在探討僑委會如何整合教學資源並建立符合SCORM（Sharable Content Object Reference Model，）規格之教學資源後設資料（metadata），為華語文學習物件建立符合LOM（Learning object Metadata，學習物件後設資料）標準的規格，提升教學資源之分享性 (sharability) 和再用性(re-usablility)，於網路中文學校教學平台提供教材編輯工具，華語文教師可以依據當地需求，重新組合素材、製作個人化教材，使教師使用網路教學資源時具有充分的自主權，以達到因材施教的理想。
Teaching Chinese in Context - Balancing Power and Politeness
Huey H. Lin,
University of California, Los Angeles
Pragmatic knowledge is the central component of communicative competence. Unfortunately, the pragmatic aspect of the language has often been ignored in Chinese language teaching. The main reason for this oversight is the lack of linguistics research in empirical pragmatics in Chinese. This study, based on natural speech data of ‘sales talk’ collected in Taiwan, examines the politeness strategies used by native Chinese speakers in persuasive discourse. The study focuses on the linguistic forms of speech acts, such as requests, suggestions, advice, threats, warnings, etc. used in persuasive discourse in Chinese. The roles and the pragmatic functions of sentence-final particles (SFP), such as ‘a’ and ‘ou’ will also be analyzed. Based on the natural speech data collected from 50 sales persons, the result of this study will show significant differences between Chinese and American cultures in terms of the types of speech acts used to achieve persuasion. To avoid communication breakdown, it is important for American students to recognize and learn the strategies and linguistic rules of persuasive patterns in Chinese and what it means to be polite in this context. In addition to extending current research on Chinese pragmatics, this study also provides insights and ideas on integrating the pragmatic aspect of Chinese language into classroom teaching.
Studies on Classroom Input and SecondLanguage Acquisition
Panel Chair: Xiao Hong Wen
Instructors’ and Learners’ Beliefs about Target Language Use, First Language Use, and Learner Anxiety in Chinese Language Classes: A Questionnaire Study.
Li-Chun Lee-Thompson, Butler University
Numerous studies have investigated language learners’ and instructors’ beliefs on target language use, first language use, and learner anxiety. The target languages in most studies were Indo-European languages, such as German, French and Spanish. Research on Chinese, a non-Indo-European language has been scant. This paper will report the findings of a study that explores the perceptions of Chinese language learners and teachers on (a) the use of the target language in various classroom contexts, (b) the use of the first language, and (c) target-language-use anxiety. Two versions of a questionnaire (students & teachers) will be employed to gather the necessary research information. The results of this study will contribute to the literature on the importance of and relationship between the use of the target language and the first language, and the role of the learner anxiety in foreign language classes. The results will also help Chinese language instructors gain a greater understanding of the pedagogical role of the first language, and an awareness of learner anxiety.
Learner Data and Validity in Studies of Chinese as a Second Language
Jun Yang, University of Chicago
The key issue examined in this presentation is the effect of the use of certain testing tools to elicit learner data on the validity of the studies of the acquisition of aspectual particle le in Chinese by adult second language learners. By examining the data elicitation procedures used in those studies, it is found that their results have been significantly compromised because the validity of those tests suffers from inaccurate description of the rules governing the use of this particle. The test, supposedly to test the categorical use of le, actually does not always constitute a categorical context for the use of le. Based on this finding, a proposal is made which necessitates a comprehensive description of the rules governing the use of le and calls for developing tools that actually test the use of le according to those rules.
An Application of “Structured Input” into Listening ComprehensionPractice for Japanese-speaking Learners of Chinese: A Case of BU and MEI
Aiqun Liu, Graduate School of International Media & Communication, Hokkaido University
In recent years “input processing instruction” has been considered to be explicit “focus on form” with emphasis on strengthening mapping with form and meaning. In some empirical research, it is supposed to be effective not only in the processing of input but also in production. Moreover, in the present practice of teaching Chinese, there is a tendency to go into production practice immediately after the introduction of grammar. I suggest utilizing “input processing instruction” as one choice of pedagogical means, and think it’s necessary to heighten the effect of the input, at a stage before production practice. BU and MEI are adverbs expressing negation in Chinese. They are probably one of the most difficult items for Japanese-speaking learners to learn, either at the beginner’s level, or at a more advanced stage of learning Chinese. On the basis of discussing learners’ input processing strategies dealing with the acquisition of BU and MEI, this paper suggests utilizing “structured input” as one part of input processing instruction in teaching BU and MEI to Japanese-speaking learners. Furthermore, examples of how to apply “structured input” into classroom practice will be provided.
Instructional Effects on the Acquisition of Chinese as a Foreign Language
Xiaohong Wen, University of Houston
It is traditionally believed that in a formal instructional setting, when students are presented with clear language instruction and when they exert the necessary effort in learning, they will be successful in acquiring the materials presented. Recent research has challenged this viewpoint. (e.g. Duff, 1990; Pienemann 1987, 1989; Bardovi-Harlig, 1995; VanPattern & Sanz, 1995). Language acquisition is not so much influenced by instructional presentation, but is critically affected by the mental systems and the readiness of the learner. Along the similar line, the present study investigates the acquisition of three Chinese constructions : verb complement; inclusive / exclusive; and ba sentences in relation to the instructional effects. Two intact Chinese classes (N = 50) at the lower intermediate level will be the sample. One class is experimental and the other is controlled group. The methods of data collection include oral interview to solicited the three constructions and the written work from students’ home-assignments and tests. The oral interview will be transcribed. Sentences that have the three constructions will be selected, and examined through both quantitative and qualitative analysis. Discussion on the findings of the acquisition of three construction in relation to the instruction will be provided.
Newly Available Teaching Materials with Distinctive Features
Panel Chair: Rongrong Liao
Four newly or half finished writing projects will be introduced: 1) Wit and Humor: A Easy Chinese Reading Series, a large-scale 3-level and 30-volume writing project to be published by BLCU Press, which is specially designed for the beginning and intermediate level English-speaking students of Chinese; 2) New Century Chinese—an innovative Chinese primer series specially tailored for North American students of Chinese, which is newly published by BLCU Press; 3) a digitized task-based intermediate Chinese course developed by DLI; 4) over 100 online interactive teaching lessons developed by DLI, which is publicly accessible. The writing principles, prominent features, practicality, application, and adaptation of the writing projects will be fully expounded in the presentation. Presentations will be rendered in the form of a seminar with audience’s interactive participation in the discussions. Handouts will be distributed.
Participants will
(1) Learn how to access to and flexibly use the online materials
(2) learn about an opportunity of participating in an exciting extensive reading project;
(3) learn about the distinctive features of the writing projects, and achieve a good understanding of the challenge of developing text materials.
Wit and Humor: An Easy Chinese Reading Series to Be Published
Biao Wang, Beijing Language and Culture University Press
Come and learn about and participate developing Wit and Humor: A Easy Chinese Reading Series, an exciting 3-level and 30-volume writing project to be published by Beijing Language and Culture University Press. Specially designed for the beginning and intermediate level English-speaking students of Chinese, this series will provide a large number of highly entertaining humorous stories carefully written in easy and idiomatic Chinese and fully annotated in English, which are now sorely needed by all the Chinese programs in North American colleges and universities. During the session, the presenter will introduce the freshly completed sample books and their positive classroom-testing results. Moreover, the presenter will also explain the important features of the series and the qualifications of the would-be participants of the writing project.After the brief introduction is completed by the presenter, the audience will be invited to join him in the discussion in an interactive fashion.
The participants will be informed about a forth-coming Chinese reading series badly needed by English-speaking learners of Chinese. They will also learn about the possibility of their participating in the writing project.
NCC—An Innovative Chinese Primer Series for American College and High School
Xiaozhou Wu, Santa Monica College
This presentation will introduce New Century Chinese, an innovative Chinese primer series newly published by Beijing Language and Culture University Press. It will also provide explanations of the writing principles, the features and usage of the series. Specially tailored for American college and high school students of Chinese, this classroom-tested series is carefully prepared by several experienced college professors of Chinese in USA. Having skillfully adopted some of the most effective teaching methods widely employed by the influential foreign language primers in America, the series provides, with a strong emphasis on oral communication ability, abundant topic-oriented oral activities of highly interactive nature, which are closely related to American students’ real life. With an equal emphasis on reading skills, it also supplies ample highly entertaining and culturally informative reading materials with strong appeal to American students of Chinese. Furthermore, the series also provides systematic and lucid grammar explanations with abundant grammar exercises for reinforcement. Presentation will be rendered in the form of a seminar with audience’s interactive participation in discussion. Participants will achieve a good understanding of the challenge of developing beginning-level text materials.
ADigitized Task-based Intermediate Chinese Course
Patrick Lin, Defense Language Institute
Being short of practical textbooks for intermediate-level students of Chinese, three Chinese departments in Defense Language Institute jointly started a project in 2002 to develop a task-based intermediate Chinese course. In this presentation the topics and features of the newly completed textbook will be introduced. The topics covered in this textbook are carefully selected from a wide range of content areas directly related to the student’s final learning objectives: culture, society, technology, politics, economy, military, and national security. The textbook is characterized by the following features: all the texts in the textbook are authentic materials selected from current sources, such as the Internet, newspapers, magazines, TV and radio broadcasts; current news can be also supplemented for each topic at the time of instruction to increase the textbook’s freshness; the textbook whose files are all digitized can be also used in a SMART Board classroom; all the classroom activities are designed to be interactive with all these multimedia materials. Presentation followed by an interactive discussion between the presenter and participants.Participants will gain valuable experience about how to develop a digitized multimedia task-based Intermediate Chinese course.
Features and Practicality of 100+ Online Interactive Reading Lessons
Rongrong Liao, Defense Language Institute
Over 100 free online interactive Chinese reading lessons developed by the DLI GLOSS Chinese teachers will be introduced. The following aspects related to the task-based activities in the lessons will be addressed: the active engagement of effective instructional strategies in the activities; the logical grouping of the activities in different ways to enhance the students' lexical, structural, or discourse competence; the ample use of language and cultural notes to help and motivate the students; and the necessary embedding of hints and feedbacks to address the relationship among the linguistic form, semantic meanings, and pragmatic use of the language. Examples will be provided to demonstrate the flexible use of the lessons, and the ways of adapting the activities for multiple purposes will also be dealt with in the presentation.
The features and practicality of the lessons will be presented in the form of a seminar. The audience will be invited to participate and interact in analyzing themes and points in the discussion.Participants will be made aware of the usefulness, availability, and adaptability of the lessons. They will also receive a handout, which includes the list of the titles and features of the lessons.
Modified Input/Interaction in the Chinese Classroom：An Examination on Repetition, Teacher Questions, and Topic Chains
Panel Chair: Yixiu Chen
本組基於Michael Long(1983)所提出的互動調整(modified interaction)進行延伸實證研究。以課室言談為範疇，三篇文章分別從「重複」、「教師提問」及「話題延伸」三種互動策略之功能面切入，希望由學習者的實際反餽來探討教師如何運用最能達成一個促進課室積極互動的模式。
A Study of the Relationship between Pedagogical Repetition and Student Feedback
Xiaoyun Liang, National Taiwan Normal University
本研究透過教師語(teacher talk)及外國人言談( foreigner talk)的對比，分析出「教學重複」(pedagogical repetition)及「交際重複」(communicational repetition)功能分布的差異，並著重研究「教學重複」對初、中級學生理解及輸出(output)的影響。實驗結果顯示：教師在教學時，如能注意避免「下意識的重複」，且有效使用教師重複三大主要功能—依序為「肯定反饋」、「強調」及「改正性反饋」，將有助於上課品質的提昇及學生習得。
A Study of the Relationship between Teacher Questions and Student Response: A Comparison between the Cases of Beginner and Intermediate CFL Classes
Yixiu Chen, National Taiwan Normal University.
本研究將漢語語言課室內的教師提問分類，以此為指標觀察初、中級班間提問與回應關聯之異同。研究發現初、中級班中，教學提問（DQ）之比例皆高於信息提問（RQ），但RQ的比例從初級班到中級班有顯著的提升。回應方面，初級班RQ與DQ兩者所引出的回答長度相當，但中級班裡則前者長於後者。此外，研究也發現延伸回答（extended response）在初級班為零，在中級班則多分佈在RQ之後。文末就各類提問在不同程度班級中與學生回應的互動關係為參考提出教學建議。
A Study of the Relationship between Side Sequence and Student Interaction: The Function of Triggers and Indicators
Alice Lee, National Taiwan Normal University.
本研究根據Gass(1985)「話題延伸」(Side Sequence) ”T-I-R-RR”理論基礎，著重分析能夠增加學生理解(comprehensible)和吸收(intake)的教學互動語料。本研究發現在語義協商(the negotiation of meaning)過程中，教師有效輸入「誘發點」(Trigger)和有技巧地介入「示意點」(Indicator)，可以活化學生思考，增加理解深度；教師靈活處理學生的「誘發點」和「示意點」，解除學生疑問，學生能正確輸出；教師掌話題延伸的循環次數，可以提高學習效率，達到語言學習目標。
Metacognition and Chinese L2 Reading
Ceclia Chang, Williams College.
Metacognition refers to the active monitoring and consequent regulation and orchestration of these processes in relation to the cognitive objects or data on which they bear, usually in the service of some concrete goal or objective (Flavell, 1976). Research into first language reading comprehension has shown that metacognition separates good and poor readers, both young and adult (Garner, 1981; Garner & Reis, 1981; Steinberg, Bohning, & Chowning, 1991; August, Flavell, & Clift, 1984; Paris & Myers, 1981).
To date, little research has been done with regard to the effect of metacognition on the comprehension behaviors of readers of Chinese as a foreign/second language (CFL), particularly at the discourse level. To fill this gap, the current study investigated the effects of topic familiarity on CFL learners’ metacognitive activities during reading. Forty CFL learners at the third-year level at two study abroad programs participated in the study. The subjects, based on their degree of familiarity with the reading topics, were divided into two groups, and each group was assigned to read one of two passages, topic familiar or unfamiliar. Subjects performed think-aloud protocols during reading. Qualitative analysis of think-aloud data revealed the types of metacognitive activities students engaged in. ANOVA analyses were conducted to compare the differences between groups on these activities. Based on the findings, implications of the current study in classroom instruction and suggestions for future studies will be discussed.
Form-focused Instruction and Communicative Task Design and Implementation
Panel Chair: Maiheng Dietrich
How to integrate form-focused instruction into task-based language teaching and learning has drawn more and more attention among researchers and practitioners in the fields of second language acquisition and language pedagogy in recent years. Research supports that such an approach can effectively enhance learners’ linguistic proficiency and communicative competence if tasks are designed appropriately for the learner’s level and implemented in a balanced way between fluency, accuracy and complexity.
In this panel, we propose to present three attempts we have made in task design and implementation in the courses that are diverse in academic objective, student body and curriculum. Fangyuan Yuan will present a task she designed for a business Chinese course (intermediate high-advanced low) that strives to encourage students to concentrate more on linguistic factors by reducing their cognitive load in the pre- and during-task stages. Maiheng Dietrich’s presentation will focus on how to use communicative tasks to target grammatical structure in a beginning Chinese class that largely follows a grammar-oriented curriculum. Grace Wu will report her design of a summer intensive beginning Chinese course for MBA students. Her focus is on how to utilize limited language knowledge to achieve specific communicative goals. We hope that by sharing our experiences, we will inspire more thought on the question of balancing meaning and form in task and curriculum design.
Task Design and Implementation in Business Chinese Teaching
Fangyuan Yuan, University of Pennsylvania
A communicative task used in L2 classrooms involves three stages: pre-task (preparation), during-task (implementation) and post-task (outcome and assessment). Different from the traditional L2 language teaching in the way of rule presentation, practice, and production, task-based language teaching regards the learning process as learning through doing. A task, therefore, should be designed with the focus on meaning negotiation. However, how to efficiently and effectively achieve the goal of enhancing learners’ linguistic competence has remained a challenge to teachers and textbook writers, since learners may find it difficult to respond to both linguistic and cognitive demands in task performance.
In this presentation, I will discuss the pedagogic concerns as to how to reduce the cognitive load of a task in the pre- and during-task stages in order to release attentional capacity for learners to concentrate more on linguistic factors. The outcome of task performance will also be examined in terms of linguistic complexity and fluency. The example I will use to illustrate is a task designed for my business Chinese classroom at the University of Pennsylvania. I hope this discussion will raise more awareness amongst teachers and textbook writers as to how to balance meaning and form in task design and implementation.
Form-focused Communicative Tasks in Beginning Level Chinese Class
Maiheng Dietrich, University of Pennsylvania
Since its onset, communicative-oriented language teaching and learning has been positioned as a challenger to the traditional grammar-oriented language curriculum. After two decades of heated debate, research, and classroom experimentation and practice, the strengths and weaknesses of each approach began to emerge: communicative language teaching promotes active use of the target language, but falls short in enhancing the learner’s accuracy level. The traditional grammar drill, on the other hand, raises the learner’s awareness of grammatical forms, but fails to help the student function linguistically in a natural environment.
Many SLA researchers and language teachers believe, however, that we do not have to live with this dilemma. Communicative tasks can, and should, focus more on form (Long, 1991). In this presentation, I will demonstrate my own attempt in recent years to integrate form-focused communicative tasks into a largely grammar-oriented curriculum. My discussion will focus on how to use communicative tasks to target grammatical structure. I will present a series of tasks that I designed for the Beginning Chinese course at the University of Pennsylvania. I will discuss the rationale used in selecting these activity types and their step-by-step implementation. The outcome of the student’s performance will also be assessed against the pre-determined goal of the task.
Developing a Task-based Language Course for MBA Students
Grace Wu, University of Pennsylvania
Developing a pedagogically focused, task-based beginning Chinese course for MBA students is clearly a difficult task. Not only are the learners more likely to be goal-oriented and expect instant success, but they are also less likely to devote substantial time for language study. Hence, the instructor must help them select appropriate language and use it strategically to achieve specific communicative purposes.
This paper reports an intensive two-week task-based Beginning Chinese summer course for first-year MBA students at the University of Pennsylvania. For years, this course had used a traditional grammar-oriented language curriculum. This approach has proven ineffective in a short-term summer program. Unlike typical undergraduates who take one or two years of foreign language to fulfill the graduation requirement, the MBA students have very different needs and interests. I will demonstrate my endeavor in designing tasks that enabled students to practice Chinese language in real-life like business settings, which will be illustrated with the communicative tasks that the students performed in Philadelphia Chinatown by the end of the two-week class. I hope my presentation and discussion will help teachers to develop their own task-based syllabus and select materials for students with varied backgrounds.
Beyond the Textbook: Using Digitized Texts in the Chinese Language Classroom
Panel Chair: Frances Yufen Lee Mehta
Teachers of intermediate and advanced level Chinese courses often encourage their students to practice reading materials outside of their textbooks. The availability of digital text reader and dictionary software tools like Clavis Sinica and Wenlin has made this kind of assignment much more common, as it is no longer necessary to create vocabulary lists for each new assigned text. This session will explore some of the ways these tools are used in actual classroom settings. Learning outcomes and pedagogical implications will also be discussed.
Printed Vs. Digitized Texts in Advanced Chinese Language Courses
Li-ling Hsiao, UNC-Chapel Hill
This paper attempts to evaluate the use of digitized texts for advanced Chinese courses and compares learning outcomes with those achieved through the more conventional printed textbook. There are controversies as how the computer technology and the Internet assist or undermine the learning outcome. The first kind of criticism centers on the inaccuracy of information, and the unsupervised accesses to the misconstrued contents floating in the cyberspace. The second criticism focuses on the formation of bad habits by browsing through superficial information with quick links to totally unrelated contents rather than pondering through passages. As digitized Chinese texts are prevalent in cyberspace and the development of reading and translation programs are gradually becoming more widely available, it is important now to consider how digitized texts assist or undermine language learning in the process and result of a second language acquisition. The investigation is essential especially for advanced level students who in their second language experience are at the stage that is beyond textbook and grammar learning. The use of digitized texts, reading programs, and online dictionaries expands the horizon of materials for students’ learning, but it also raises issues about the accuracy and depth of this kind of learning. This paper will focus on these issues and investigate how computer technology and the Internet could play a role in advanced Chinese courses. The analysis will be based on students’ opinion of the effectiveness of language learning through carefully designed questionnaires.
Can Technology Reshape Pedagogy? Using Clavis Sinica with Digitized Texts
Lo Sun Perry, University of Puget Sound
When educators consider the ways in which technologies can best serve teaching and learning, the general wisdom and tested formula have always been that technology use has to serve the need of pedagogy. However, as technology innovations constantly provide educators with new and improved support and ideas, it is foreseeable that the field of teaching will be reshaped, if it has not been already, by technology instead of by teaching methodology. Technology affects not merely methods and approaches but also what we are teaching and what students are learning. In this presentation I will examine the pedagogical adjustments and integration process of the application of new technologies in my advanced class, specifically, the use of Clavis Sinica, a multimedia text reader, as applied to digitized texts. Discussions and evaluations will offer dual perspectives from both the instructor and the learner, and focus on issues regarding teacher preparation, coping strategies, study skills and resource selection.
Have Fun Doing Homework: The Application and Integration of a Chinese Reading Tool
Frances Yufen Lee Mehta, Cornell University
A research study was conducted on the use of computerized reading software in Advanced Chinese over a period of two semesters. Results showed not only that students wrote more, but also that the quality of their homework writings greatly improved in accuracy and fluency with regular use of the computerized reading tool embedded in the textbook. As students make advancements in literacy, well-designed homework assignments also enhance their oral skills. Compared to former students who were not equipped with this tool, these students were more ready to investigate new articles within or beyond their knowledge. By studying characters and compounds, their understanding, association and memory span of vocabulary also increased significantly.
Starting with the use of the authentic reading texts embedded in the digitized reading tool, the paper will discuss a series of weekly homework assignments skillfully integrated with seemingly basic but challenging linguistic work. The tasks could include recording news articles read out aloud in a broadcaster-like tone, telling stories, reporting on other students’ presentations by sharing their own views, and composing essays based on words that specially interest them. Assessment and evaluation of the homework using the computerized software will be addressed in terms of accuracy, fluency and richness of vocabulary.
Computer Assisted Chinese Learning: Building a Mental Representation of the Tones
Liang Tao, Ohio University
Two studies have been conducted to assess the effectiveness and practicality of computer technology in assisting Chinese language instruction: (1) an experimental study that examines how commercial software with speech recognition technology could help improve the pronunciation of Mandarin Chinese; (2) the observation of enhancement of language learning self-efficacy and computer self-efficacy using commercial software with and without speech recognition technology. The studies have examined practical advantages and limitations of current technology to supplement Chinese language instruction.
Weekly sessions were conducted. Students used two types of computer softwareto practice their listening comprehension and pronunciation. Videotapes and detailed observations recorded student’s behavior and progress over one to two academic quarters. A follow-up test was also conducted using speech recognition technology to examine retention of students’ pronunciation. Individual oral interviews of the students have also been conducted to document evaluation of the studies from the participants. Statistical analysis of the results reveals satisfactory improvement and retention of tone pronunciation in Mandarin Chinese. The results of the qualitative study have provided crucial information for understanding language learners during the application of computer technology in language pedagogy. Both studies, plus students feedback, provide evidence of positive enhancement of language production and comprehension using computer technology.
On Designing a Comprehensive Curriculum of Chinese as a Foreign Language
Panel Chair: Shengli Feng
随着中国经济的发展和学习汉语热潮不断高涨，各个方面都对汉语的教学提出了更高的要求。然而，就坊间现有的汉语教学大纲而言，仍有亟待提高和完善的必要。我们虽然有语法教学大钢（如王还主编的《语法大纲》），但不见语用教学大纲、更不用说集语法、语用和词汇为一体并且照顾到有背景学生的综合性的国外汉语教学大钢。我们的这一组所要讨论的正是从不同的角度来弥补这一缺陷。我们知道，教语言离不开语法、语用和词汇。然而，这三个平面既相互联系又各成体系。语法结构不仅有基本与/派生的不同，还要考虑到易教和易学的程度；词汇教学也有常用与不用、有用与适用的区别；话语行为（speech arc）同样有场景（日常与特别、正式与随便）与行为（批评、感谢）的差异。因此先教什么、怎么教，绝不是一个因素所能决定的。因此，我们必须首先研究各种因素自身的体系，然后才能兼而顾之，设计出一个体系完整的教学大纲；因为一个理想的教学大纲，不仅是教学的指导，同时也是教材编写的根据
The Vocabulary in a Comprehensive Curriculum of Chinese as a Foreign Language
Lening Liu, Columbia University
本文重点探讨如何设计国外汉语教学大纲中的词汇部分及如何使词汇部分同语用、语法部分有机地结合起来。首先, “有用”和”地道”是国外汉语教师以功能主义为基础的两个原则。本文认为：我们必须首先区分常用、有用及适用的问题：常用不一定有用；对中国人有用不一定适用于外国的语言习得者。许多教材以汉字字频表为依据，字频表又以什么为依据(口语还是书面)？其次，要区分地道，准确及适用的问题：地道不一定适用，相反，地道可能会误导。
第三，要区分地道与规范：外语教学不追求描写的全面，反而要有明显的规范性 。最后还要考虑由易到难，循序渐进，循环往复，不断巩固的对策和方法。
The Speech Act in a Comprehensive Curriculum of Chinese as a Foreign Language
Jenny Wang, United States Naval Academy
本文重点探讨如何设计国外汉语教学大纲中的语用部分及如何使语用部分同语法、词汇部分有机地结合起来。语用部分是指学生应该学会用汉语做什么，比如指人、指物、指事，描写、叙述、询问，赞扬、评论、猜测、感叹，请求、邀请、接受、谢绝、致谢、道歉、承诺、劝告、威胁、暗示 . . . 等等。本文指出在以往教学大纲和教材中对这些语用或语言行为的概念重视不够，特别是在目前交际教学法普遍采用的情况下，往往在以情景和主题为线索的教学序列中不仅忽视语法和词汇的等级渐进，也忽视了对语用目标的系统安排。本文将列举一些实例来说明语用应成为一个全面可行的教学大纲的重要组成部分，并建议着重处理蕴含文化差异的语言功能。
Using the Principles of a Comprehensive Curriculum of Chinese to Teach Heritage Students
Emily Huang, Harvard University
近年來漢語課上有中文背景或華裔背景學生逐日增加，因此初級、中級甚至高級漢語課使用“雙軌並進式”的大學亦越來越多。此兩類學生，語言習得進階及其所欲達成效目標，差異顯明，為達教學最大效用，雙軌並進制實有其必要性與功能性。學生既區分，教學教法、教材編寫、教學內容及考核評審亦應分軌進行。報告中先分析背景班教學中及課堂上常面對之挑戰與問題：如背景不一、方言干擾、成人識字、語構混淆、詞彙不足、亦中亦英及習用語俚語常現、鄉音混雜字不正腔不圓等等，再以前面三篇報告所提理念為綱，以實例為證，思考上述問題解決之道。當然如何善用學生已有之語言背景以利教學，達到語言習得迅速、語用能力精確也在報告中探討。
The Syntax in a Comprehensive Curriculum of Chinese as a Foreign Language
Shengli Feng, Harvard University
根据前人的经验和研究，我们认为：语法大纲所要解决的问题首先是汉语教学的语法点的究竟有多少，亦即：初级汉语有多少个语法点、中级汉语又有多少个语法点？（高年级亦然）其次是先教哪一点。前者是数量的问题，后者是次序的问题。然而如何决定数量和次序则须有科学的根据。我们认为：语法教学的内容和次序需要由内外两种因素来决定。内部因素由语言本身的规律来决定：如基本结构（主动句）和派生结构（被动句）。外部因素则要由教学的需要（讲解和训练）、语言习得规律（主动先于被动）、以及词汇和语用体系的需要来决定。本文通过统计坊间一二年级教材的语法点来说明一般汉语教学的语法的数量和先后，然后通过比较各种教材的优劣说明内外因素的重要性。
The SAT Subject Test in Chinese
Panel Chair: Kim Kaye
The panel will provide an overview of the SAT Subject Test in Chinese: its content, format, and construction, and how students perform on the test. Participants will explore the curricular implications of the test and discuss strategies for preparing students to take the test.
An Overview of the SAT Chinese Test
Kim Kaye, Educational Testing Service
The presenter will discuss the test development process, including the work of the test development committee and the role of pretesting. Student performance data from the most recent administration of the test will be presented and analyzed.
Student Voices from the Field
Min Zhang, Indiana Academy & Ball State University
The presenter will report on feedback from her students regarding the SAT Chinese Test. Suggestions on how to help students prepare for the test will be provided.
The Role of Colleges in the SAT Chinese Test
Neil Kubler, Williams College
The presenter will discuss the use of the SAT Chinese Test in college admissions and placement and the role of college instructors and students in the pretesting process
Teaching Chinese as a Foreign Language Based on Network Techniques
Panel Chair: Jianfei Ma
介绍国家汉办两个重大汉语网络项目：“中美网络语言教学项目”和“长城汉语”。前者目的是互为对方12-
18岁的中学生制作通过网络系统学习汉语/英语的课件，具体包括课文在项目中的地位、课文编写简介、故事脚本对汉语第二语言教材编写的启发。后者以网络多媒体技术与面授教学的结合为教学手段，力图开创一套高效、科学、系统、全新的汉语教学模式，具体包括研发目标、理论意义、设计原则、主要特征、对象定位、学习方式等。
Teaching Design and Technical Analysis of the “Great Wall Chinese” Pedagogical Model
Jianfei Ma, Beijing Language and Culture University
“长城汉语”作为一种全新的汉语教学模式，要体现“以现代实用汉语为主，以交际沟通汉语为主”的教学原则和“个性化、信息化、开放化、组合式和标准化”的基本设计原则。所以“长城汉语”教学模式的研发对技术提出了更高的标准和要求，无论是教学管理、测试系统、资源建设，还是课件开发等都需要整合最新的现代教育技术理念和最先进的技术手段。
本文主要就“长城汉语”教学模式在课件开发中的教学设计思路和技术手段进行分析，重点阐述在本模式的课件开发中如何将语言教学理论、现代教育技术理念与先进的技术手段有效的结合起来，达到语言教学的目标。
A New Model for Chinese Pedagogy – “Great Wall Chinese” and its Design
Xuemei Zhao, Beijing Language and Culture University
“长城汉语”教学模式“以现代实用汉语为主，以交际沟通汉语为主”。是一种基于全新语言教学理念，以汉语交际任务教学理论与有限学习目标的语言教学研究为理论基础，以交际性、个性化、信息化、开放式、组合式、标准化为基本设计原则，以网络多媒体技术与面授教学的结合为教学手段，力图开创一套高效、科学、系统、全新的汉语教学模式。
本文将就“长城汉语”教学模式的研发目标、理论意义、设计原则、主要特征、对象定位、学习方式以及本教学模式包括的基本内容等设计思路进行全面阐述。
The Sino-American Network Language Pedagogy Program and its “CHENGO” Textbook
Songhao Liu, Beijing University
1. 项目介绍：两国教育部之间最大的教育交流合作项目，目的是为对方12-18岁的中学生制作通过网络系统学习汉语/英语的课件。“乘风”是该项目中文课件的名字。
2.
课文在项目中的地位（从教学和动画两个角度介绍）。
3.
“乘风”课文编写简介
4. “乘风”故事脚本对汉语第二语言教材编写的启发
An Analysis of the Factors which Influence Language Pedagogy in the Network Environment
Fati Wu, Beijing NormalUniversity
基于先进的网络和多媒体技术，以抛锚式教学为主要策略对美国中学生进行汉语语言的教学，是中美网络语言教学项目的目标。基于超媒体的知识组织方式符合人类联想思维的本质，而多媒体的内容表现方式，加强了学生对目标语言的理解,大大提高了语言的学习效率。电脑游戏和语言教学的结合可大大提高学习者的积极性，激发并维持学习者的学习动机，具备很好的教学潜力。网络虚拟社区可以促进协作式的学习，对于学习者高级认知能力的培养具有重要意义。
Pedagogy and Pedagogical Grammar
Panel Chair: Wenze Hu
The status and function of a pedagogical grammar in the teaching of Chinese have drawn a lot of attention in recent years. What is an efficient and effective way to integrate the latest findings in the field of linguistic research in a pedagogical grammar, and how to explain certain general principles underlying the Chinese language through a user-friendlypresentation to our learners are topics of frequent discussion and concern among Chinese teachers. This panel is organized to share some of our thoughts and concerns stemming from our own experience of teaching and research.Iconicity is much discussed in recent years among linguists. The first presenter will explore the potential of the iconicity principle for pedagogical application in Chinese language instruction.
Both communicative competence and grammatical competence are hot topics in the field of second language acquisition. The second presenter will contribute her thoughts as to how to integrate pedagogical grammar and content-based instruction in Chinese pedagogy to achieve more efficient and effective Chinese learning.
The third presenter will argue that to English students, learning Chinese involves not only surface grammatical patterns and set expressions, and background information about certain given contexts, but also a mind switch in terms of world outlook in order to ensure the appropriateness and accuracy in conveying and understanding the intended messages.
Iconicity in the Teaching of Chinese
Zhengsheng Zhang, San Diego State University
The iconicity principle, according to which language structure reflects or bears an iconic relationship to the structure of the real world, has been very influential in linguistic research. The structure of Chinese in particular has been argued to be iconic to a great extent.
The present paper aims to explore the application of the iconicity principle in the teaching of Chinese. We will first explore the potential as well as the limit of the principle in the description of Chinese, i.e., for what areas of Chinese language structure the principle is particularly well-motivated and where the principle breaks down.
It will then be argued that the limit on the use of the principle for the description of Chinese does not in any way invalidate its pedagogical application.We will then discuss the rationale for applying the principle for language teaching, i.e., in what ways the use of the principle can guide the presentation, explanation and subsequent acquisition of a structural point.
Finally, selected areas of Chinese language structure that are particularly amenable to theiconicity principle will be used to demonstrate in detail the application of the principle in Chinese language instruction.
Pedagogical Grammar and Content-based Instruction for Teaching Chinese
Sue-mei Wu, Carnegie Mellon University
Pedagogical grammar, which focuses on what grammar elements should be included in language learning and how to teach those elements effectively, has received a great amount of attention by Chinese language professionals.Content-based instruction, which addresses how to combine grammar learning with meaningful interaction and communication, is an important concept that can be applied to pedagogical grammar. This presentation will talk about how to integrate these two notions in Chinese pedagogy to achieve more effective Chinese learning.
The talk will first briefly introduce and summarize research on these two subjects. Then, several common, important Chinese grammar points which are generally introduced at the Elementary level are chosen as illustrations.The illustrations will consist of several related components:
Conception, Grammar and Teaching
Wenze Hu, Harvard University
This presentation is to address the importance of the integration of the Chinese perspectives in terms of native speakers’ conceptualization about physical realities in our grammatical explanations in the Teaching of Chinese. Nowadays, more and more scholars in the field of second language acquisition have realized that along with communicative competence, grammatical competence occupies an important space in the learning process of a second language learner. In this aspect, I would argue with specific examples that a cognition-based functional approach will better our position in dealing with some seemingly difficult and persistent problems haunting both our teachers and students.
This presentation will deal with some socio-cultural aspects of time and space related word order phenomena commonly encountered in the teaching of Chinese with the focus on the relationship between grammatical structure and Chinese conceptions about the external world. It will argue that to our English students, Chinese learning as in the case of time and space expressions, involves not only surface grammatical patterns and set expressions, but also a mind switch in terms of world outlook in order to ensure the appropriateness and accuracy in conveying and understanding the intended messages.
Same or Different—Comparative Studies of Programs Home and Abroad: Curriculum, Textbook, Language Pledge and Post-Study Abroad Placement
Panel Chair: Judy Zhijun Mu
Learning and Teaching Chinese in the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): aStudy on a Curriculum Design of Intermediate Chinese in an Overseas Program and a Program on a U.S Campus
Carolyn Kunshan Lee, Duke University
Vygotsky's concept of zone of proximal development, meaning the difference between what a learner can do with versus without guidance, has been widely used in Theories of Second Language Acquisition. Herein, I apply his concept to compare curriculum designs for Intermediate Chinese courses on a U.S campus and in a study abroad program. The U.S. campus based curriculum is constrained by limited class time and relies more on classroom instruction and activities and one-on-one teacher and student sessions outside of the classroom. In contrast, an overseas course emphasizes out of class activities including a language practicum, a language partner program and one-on-one teacher and student conversation sessions. Language teachers, native speakers of Chinese and more capable peers assist students to solve problems that are often one step above their level of communicative competence. I will discuss the role of language teachers in both curricula as well as the utilization of the different social contexts in teaching and learning Chinese as a second language.
“Success with Chinese” — Evaluating a New Beginner’s Textbook for Overseas Program
De An Wu Swihart, University of Memphis
American students in China are rightfully concerned with the practicality of the language they learn in the intensive setting. They expect that everything they learn in the classroom can be put to their daily use in China. This new textbook, to be published by Tseng and Cui Publisher, is designed to meet this need. It discusses "daily-life" topics much sooner than conventional textbooks. The author argues that these practical topics are not inherently any more or less challenging than those selected in a conventional textbook; they are, however, relevant to the overseas students, who naturally become motivated to learn. In addition to its relevant topics, this textbook uses a "learning to analyze" approach by introducing a “repetition” method to reinforce characters learning. Reading words and phrases is treated as the first step in learning characters. Following that is an expanded reading composed of sentences, then paragraphs. The author will demonstrate that this approach is effective and efficient and that American students can quickly learn to read Chinese text relevant to their daily life after about a month in an intensive setting.
Enforcing the Language Pledge: A Mission Possible?
Judy Zhijun Mu, Washington University in St. Louis
Many programs, at home and/or abroad, mandate that students “speak Chinese only” at all times when they are around Chinese learning peers. A majority of study abroad programs have even made it a disciplinary procedure that students have to sign a language pledge upon their arrival, for the duration of their stay. However, this has been constantly violated. It is an open secret, and to some extent, an embarrassment to the program which upholds the banner of “No English Spoken Here”. Teachers either simply turn a blind eye to the situation, or constantly remind students of the pledge but to no avail. Persistence in enforcing the pledge can often lead to defiance. I will analyze and compare results of surveys on the topic of enforcing the pledge in summer programs both at home and abroad, and examine the affective variables involved, including sociolinguistics, cultural identity and learning strategies. I will argue that the issues of technicality and practicality must be taken into consideration, and the pledge be revised and modified. The conclusion to draw will be that “Speak Chinese Only” is a mission still possible to accomplish, when appropriate adjustments are rendered.
Placement after Studying Abroad - A Closer Look at Returned Students
Lunghua Hu, Brown University
Sending off our students to study-abroad programs has gradually become an integral part of Chinese programs at home for many of us. We prepare them before they set out on their journey; we go all out to provide them with the best learning experiences possible while they are attending the program; however, much less effort, if any, has been devoted to designing a curriculum on campus that will meet the needs of our returned students. Obviously, returned students and our “home-grown” students are different in a number of ways, but very often we neglect the differences between them and group them together anyway. It is time we gave our “one-size-fits-all” curriculum a face-lift. I would like to explore this subject of placement of returned students through examining the following questions: Do our returned students experience reverse culture shock? What can we do to maintain the height of students’ enthusiasm upon their return to the U.S.? What are the common complaints from returned students who continue to take Chinese on campus? Are there any discrepancies between students’ self image and their actual language proficiency? Lastly, what can we do to capitalize on their experiences?
On-line Assessment and Teaching Tools: The STAMP (Standards-based Measurement of Proficiency) Project for Chinese
Panel Chair: Madeline K. Spring
The Standards-based Measurement of Proficiency (STAMP) is an online assessment of proficiency. Consistent with ACTFL Guidelines and National Standards, it is an accessible, quick, and affordable way to assess all students’ proficiency. STAMP is already used nationally to assess students in French, German, Japanese, and Spanish. The reading test in Chinese is being developed and piloting will begin in June (for groups of students entering summer programs) and early September (for groups beginning the academic ’04-’05 year). This panel will present both an overview of the project, how it compares with other assessment tools, and specific implications this test has for standards-based teaching.
An Overview of the Project
Madeline K. Spring, University of Colorado Boulder
This presentation will demonstrate the distinctive features of the project for STAMP in Chinese, such as the development of the Benchmarks, pedagogical criteria used to create test items, and the process used in this first stage of piloting the test. A statistical analysis of individual test items based on the results of piloting the test will be demonstrated. The panelist will also outline the next stage of the project, which will include providing teaching tools for instructors to use in developing their curricula, and implementation of a writing component of the test.
How Does STAMP Differ from Other Assessment Tools for Chinese
Richard Chi, University of Utah
Having been involved with a variety of assessment projects, this panelist will address some of the issues confronting the development and implementation of on-line and paper testing. Topics that will be explored include the pros and cons of computer adaptive testing and the reliability and interpretation of test results.
Why is STAMP Critical for Students and Teachers on the Secondary Level
Yu-lan Lin, Boston Public Schools
The panelist will approach this question by first examining the nature of a proficiency test: What does it measure? What information does it provide to students and teachers, and why such information is important. It will be followed by an explanation of how interactions between the test taker and the texts actually promote the goal of communication, which in turn promotes language proficiency. Finally, examples will be given to demonstrate how STAMP remedies the flaws of other assessment tools that are designed for the secondary level.
Responding to External Mandates for Standards-based Foreign Language Teaching
Hongming Zhang, University of Wisconsin Madison
Coming from Wisconsin, a state that adopted Model Academic Standards in 1997, this panelist will discuss how standards -based teaching and assessment affects Chinese language programs. Specifically this session will discuss how the STAMP project addresses state and national mandates for teaching to and evaluating content, performance, and proficiency standards. The plan for developing a pedagogically sound set of classroom materials that reinforce the effectiveness of STAMP will also be presented. These tools will greatly facilitate instructors as they respond to locally and nationally imposed objectives.
From Pedagogical Grammar to Grammar Pedagogy
Panel Chair: Jianhua Bai
外语教学的实践证明，使学生掌握语法规则是语言教学的重要任务之一。如何有效地帮助学生掌握语法规则从而提高他们的交际能力一直是学者们所关注的重要课题。“教学语法是以语法规则为基础，以学习者为导向…”（邓守信， 2003），“侧重于对语言现象的描写和对规律、用法的说明…（赵金铭2003）,”近年来， 教学语法的研究取得了可喜的进步， 对CFL教学起到了重要的指导作用。然而，如何用具体生动鲜活的方法把教学语法付诸于课堂，使语法教学成为教学活动的有机组成部分还需要进一步的研究。本组论文旨在探讨如何针对学生的特点运用有效的课程设置和课堂活动来帮助学生掌握语法规则，发展他们的语言交际能力
Innovative Approach to Beginning Chinese Grammar Pedagogy
Meiqing Zhang, Brown University
语法教学是语言教学的基础与中心。我们的教学对象是成年人，其学习与使用语言的能力是建立在准确地掌握语法规则的基础上的。若能发挥其理性思维能力强，善于抓住规则总结规律，并用规律指导学习的特长，则可以收到良好的教学效果。本文想从语法形式与教学方法两个方面，谈谈对初级汉语教学中语法教学问题的思考。
一. 对语法形式的处理问题: 笔者认为对于不同的语法形式，若能以不同的分类方式来处理，更有利于学生掌握和使用。我们采用了如下的几种分类方式：
二. 在语法教学中，教师需要把学生的学习目的、兴趣热点、及心理活动都纳入自己的考虑范围。如何通过有效的教学方法，把一个陌生的全新的语法概念，有效地准确地传达给学生，使学生能够轻松地把握并正确地使用呢？下面是我们在明德中文暑校采用的一些方法。
Sentence Patterns, “Scenarios” and Grammar Pedagogy
Fang Liu, Oberlin College
第二外语教学实践证明，传统的语法在课堂中正被教学语法所替代。教学语法是在教学实践中总结、提炼出来的，用不同于传统语法教学形式讲练的语法。教学语法讲练的特点是：讲解语言精、简、易懂，多用实际例证帮助学生理解。用精、简、易懂的例证，例证的设计尤为关键。设计的不周密不仅不能引导出所要讲练的语法、句型、词汇，也有误导学生的可能。
我们所设计的实际例证应多来自学生会体验的现实环境。我们也可把这些语境称为“剧情”。母语学习与外语学习的区别在于，母语学生可以按照剧情自然地运用句型，而外语学习者有了句型却未必能正确地运用到所碰到的“剧情”里。因此，教师的课堂设计，既要提示“句型”，也需提示“剧情”。使学生在语言实践中体认在适当“剧情”中使用适当的词汇或句型。有“句型”，无“剧情”，而将词汇，句型生硬套用。这是学习者出现无内容，无意义语句的主因。所以，语言教师应通过多种多样的语境，运用灵活多变的方式训练学生。这样，学习者才能在真实语言环境中正确、自如地使用所学到的语法、句型。笔者将通过若干教案之得失，作出具体分析，通过具体教学实例，展示如何有效地帮助学生掌握汉语语法的规律，正确的使用汉语，发展语言交际能力。
Grammar Pedagogy Beyond the Beginning Level
Li Zhu, Beijing CET
语法教学的目的是帮助学生有效的掌握语言规则和语义，准确地进行语言交际。对语言规则及语义的掌握要有一个逐渐加深的过程。本文旨在通过高年级能愿动词 “能”与 “会”的教学实例阐述语法教学的深化问题。
能愿动词“能”与“会”学生很早就学过了，但是随着学生水平不断提高，要更准确地表达深层的思想内容，在能愿动词的使用上常会出现一些错误。大致可以分为三类：
第一类：用错“能”与“会”。比如：“我认为人是世界的主人。如果把动物当作世界的主人，世界的情况能更糟糕。”第二类：不该用能愿动词的地方使用了能愿动词：“他们年轻，可以出去工作、跟别人交流。所以可以会追求自己的幸福。”第三类：该用能愿动词的地方没有用：“看到这种变化，我很高兴，因为我知道她好起来。”
针对中高年级学生在使用能愿动词“能”与“会”出错的问题，在中高阶段教学的时候，应该深化能愿动词的教学：一、不能像低年级那样就事论事，碰到什么能愿动词就讲什么，而是根据学生以前学过的内容，通过丰富的语境，对能愿动词进行归类。帮助学生体会“能”与“会”所表示的不同意义：意愿、能力、推测。 二、能愿动词在文章中出现频率较高，可以选择一段“能”与“会”较为集中的文章让学生自己体会“能”与“会”在篇章中的意义。三、给学生一段“能”与“会”较为集中的文章，并抽去“能”与“会”，让学生根据篇章内容，自己填写“能”与“会”。四、给学生一些表达意愿、能力及推测的话题，为其创造运用“能”与“会”的语境，使其有个自然运用的机会。
“能”与“会”虽然在学生初级阶段就学了，但并不简单。如果想要运用正确，也不是一时之工，需要长期的体会与练习。建议在中高级班，老师有意识地、系统地为学生进行这方面的训练。
The Interface of Notion and Discourse: Grammatical Patterns and Strategies in Spontaneous Spoken Chinese and their Pedagogical Applications
Panel Chair: Jianqi Wang
Spontaneous discourse is the most frequent situation where language is utilized, but the least domain topic covered in contemporary academic research. This panel treats scripted language recitals as a kind of written language in terms of structural patterning rather than spontaneous spoken discourse. It tries to establish that their incoherency from the written language, and therefore, their inconsistency with traditional grammatical structures, is a key characteristic of spontaneous speech acts. It thus probes into some preliminary patterns, rules and strategies in spontaneous spoken discourse, be it structural or rhetorical, based on statistical studies and empirical investigations. It then argues for a shift of focus in the teaching of Chinese as foreign language and calls upon statistical studies and pedagogical researches on the drawing of the schemes, structures and contextualized strategies in spontaneous spoken discourse of Mandarin Chinese. Within the reach of performative approach to Chinese as foreign language classrooms, this panel also suggests some concrete applications of relevant findings.
The Coherency and Incoherency of Spontaneous Spoken Discourse of Mandarin Chinese
Jianqi Wang, Ohio State University
Statistical comparison reveals substantial mismatches between the frequent words used in spontaneous spoken discourse, CCTV television talk show more specifically, and words used written language as presented in the Frequency Dictionary of Chinese by Beijing Foreign Language Institute. A closer examination of the transcriptions of the talk show programs indicates that spontaneous language presents ideas differently from written language. Repetitions and redundancies, for example are deemed “necessary” in spontaneous discourse but “less than educated” or “uncivil” if taken as writing in its word-for-word transcribed form. Expressions that are “ungrammatical” measured against the written language standard, are “grammatical” in spontaneous discourse, not creating any discomfort and/or misunderstanding. This lends support to the existence of a proposed grammar system that departs significantly from traditional written grammar.
Using Chengyu the “Wrong” Way: Structure, Strategy and Context in Spontaneous SpokenDiscourse
Xiaobin Jian, College of William and Mary
This paper attempts to explore the working and effects of a powerful rhetorical strategy—using chéngyǔ in ways that depart from their established meanings, structures, classifications, or “word orders.” Often dismissed as “immature” or “unsophisticated” by some language purists and cultural elites, this rhetorical strategy has nonetheless been widely practiced, especially in the last two decades and among the educated 20 to 40 year old generations. In spontaneous spoken discourse, such practice is not only accepted, but also often perceived as “cool.” By probing the patterns of chéngyǔ “misuse” and examining how the “misuses” are in fact effectively helping to establish the speaker’s intention, building up certain types of persona, changing the mood and re-directing focuses, etc., this paper argues that, to determine and fully explain the appropriateness and/or the working of grammatical patterns in spontaneous spoken discourse, one has to take into consideration of questions such as who is speaking to whom, why, when and where. In other words, a context-free discourse grammar is both undesirable and unattainable.
Performative Grammar: Authentic Discourse as Pedagogical Unit
Matthew B. Christensen, Brigham Young University
It can be argued quite persuasively, (and backed up with empirical research), that learners of Mandarin Chinese have a difficult time acquiring discourse grammatical structures that are used so commonly in everyday oral interactions. Efforts to introduce grammatical discourse markers can be challenging for learners to internalize when treating the language at the sentence level, or when simply analyzing discourse language samples. Though identification and analysis of the discourse structures is important, and a first step, learners must have opportunities to actually use the structures in authentic tasks. This paper proposes that oral performance is an effective means for learners to acquire grammatical discourse strategies. When authentic non-pedagogical Chinese discourse is used as the pedagogical unit of instruction, learners memorize and perform the language within authentic cultural contexts. Through performance, learners are better able to internalize the information and are more likely to retain and use the structures later in authentic oral interactions in the target culture.
Jump-start CALL with Pedagogical Enhancement
Panel Chair: Jennifer Liu
Technologies, with their new and ever powerful features, are thought by many to revolutionize the way Chinese as a foreign language is taught and learned. This is readily evident in the number and enthusiasm of the participants in many technology-related gatherings in the field. Yet, when computer assisted language learning (CALL) materials are carefully examined, one will soon find this assumption faulty, and realize that a simple transfer of text-based materials into an online or electronic environment cannot guarantee the success of language teaching and learning. Thus, papers on this panel all argue, from different perspectives with different approaches and examples, that innovative/careful pedagogical thinking is the key to fulfill the potential of technologies in Chinese language learning and teaching. We should always study and analyze the pedagogical tasks first, before plunging ourselves or our students into the technology ocean to “swim or to sink.” Even though technologies are advancing rapidly, the state of CALL is in a halt. This stagnation can be jump-started by the pedagogical enhancement, since the technological tools can only be as good as the imagination of the persons who use them.
Pinyin Input Error Analysis
Tianwei Xie, California State University
Using Chinese word-processors to input characters in teaching Chinese becomes more and more popular. Using computers helps students to learn the language. However, when typing characters, some new errors occur. They are different from the errors when students use pen and paper to write. This study attempts to answer three questions: 1. What types of typing errors often occur? 2. Are these errors caused by homophonic characteristics of the Chinese script system or related to students’ typing habit? 3. Will different software programs affect the typing accuracy?
The data are collected from students’ typed homework for two semesters. Two groups of students using NJSTAR Chinese WP and Penless Chinese learning tool respectively are compared. The results show that 1. Most typing errors are related to Chinese homophones. 2. Students’ typing strategy also affects the typing accuracy. 3. Different programs have different impacts on typing accuracy.
It is suggested that specially designed typing software for Chinese learning should be adopted to avoid unnecessary confusion and reduce errors. Penless Chinese learning tool is appropriate for beginning learners, while other software programs such as NJSTAR and Microsoft IME are more appropriate for advanced students.
Is providing students Website Addresses Enough?
Hsin-hsin Liang, The University of Virginia
The challenges in teaching a course in Media Chinese are numerous. In this paper the author concluded that simply providing students with the URLs of Web sites to explore the Chinese language world is not sufficient. Specific teaching methods will be demonstrated in the presentation to show that many other skills and kinds of knowledge are required before the students are able to look for, select, and eventually absorb useful information from the Web. These skills must be developed at the very beginning of the course through step-by-step instruction in how to get access to, become familiarized with, and efficiently use a Chinese search engine on Chinese websites. In conclusion, the author would like to emphasize that the scope and amount of information on the Web is enormous, of different levels of quality, and caters to a wide variety of tastes. It will be up to the instructors to transform this abundance of sources into usable educational material, at least at the beginning of their students’ exploration of Chinese.
Cognitive Network for Chinese Character Learning
Jennifer Liu, Indiana University
The study of characters is undoubtedly one of the most challenging tasks for many English learners of Chinese. It’s also one of the areas that have been widely-researched (Hayes, 1988; Ke, 1996 and1998). It is noted that English learners of Chinese, compared to native-speakers, pay more attention to the graphic feature of characters. Apparently, the orthographic differences capture the attention of students. While the study of characters is traditionally treated as rote learning, best illustrated in the time-honored approach of copying characters over and over, different approaches have emerged such as mapping the relationship among characters (Harbaugh, 1998) based on their shape.
In light of these, the researcher analyzed150 most frequently used characters based on their shape, charted them into a relational map, and sequenced them for presentation and practice to yield the optimal pedagogical effect. It is hypothesized that helping students build a cognitive network of characters based on their shape will increase the recall and retention of characters. This approach to character learning is integrated into a computer-assisted languagelearning module which in turn illustrates how technology should be combined with the latest study in pedagogy to fulfill its potential in empowering language learning.
Gateway to Chinese Language and Culture: a Computer Template
Xueying Wang and Li-Chuang Chi, Johns Hopkins University
With funding from FIPSE, The Johns Hopkins University has developed Chinese multimedia instructional courseware—Gateway to Chinese Language and Culture. This courseware covers three years worth of instruction and has been designed to provide a comprehensive curriculum for Chinese language teaching and learning, focusing not only on language but also on culture. The courseware includes multimedia exercises in listening, speaking, reading, writing, and grammar.
As everyone knows, it is time-consuming to create technology-based language-learning instructional materials. With this in mind, the project team developed a series of easily adaptable templates to help facilitate its task. These courseware templates are useful in that they can be adapted to fit an instructor’s needs; their unique template system allows for quick curriculum-based changes. The templates can also be used for other languages’ courseware. At Hopkins, the templates have been put into use for Arabic, Italian, French, and, soon, Hindi.
In this presentation, we would like to demonstrate this courseware and share the lessons we have learned in its development as well as show its multimedia capacity and adaptive functions.
Study of Chinese Syntactic Structures and their Acquisition
Panel Chair: Miaofen Tseng
Verb-Copying Constructions and Double-Object Constructions in Chinese: Perspective in Cognitive Constraints on information Processing
Jyun-gwang Fred Chen, Graduate Institute of TCSL, National Taiwan Normal University
The aim of this paper is two-fold. Theoretically, it analyzes verb-copying and double-object constructions within a unified framework. Pedagogically, it incorporates analytical results into the framework of Chinese Pedagogical Grammar and provides information for teaching verb-copying and related constructions. Numerous researchers have investigated verb-copying in terms of syntactic, semantic, and thematic structures, but few have related it to information structure, let alone information constraints. This paper adopts Chafe’s “one new idea constraint”, which stipulates the single focus of consciousness allows no more than one ideas that constrain new information. Thus, *ta nianshuliangge zhongtou (‘He read a book for two hours’) and *wo geiyige renyiben shu (‘I gave a person a book) are ungrammatical, because both violate the “one new idea constraint”, each with two new ideas in the postverbal position. They can, however, be redressed by reduplicating the verb in the former and substituting the indefinite object for definite (given information) in the latter, as in ta nian shu nian leliangge zhongtou (‘He studied for two hours’) and wo geimeige ren yiben shu (‘I gave everyone a book), leaving one new idea in the predication. Hence, verb-copying is part of a more general phenomenon.
A Comparative Study on the Production of Conditional Sentences in Chinese and English
Miao-Fen Tseng, University of Virginia
Whereas English makes grammatical distinctions between factual, hypothetical and counterfactual conditionals in terms of the tense and auxiliary verbs, Mandarin Chinese does not (Li & Thompson, 1981). This paper attempts to discuss the structural simplicity of Chinese conditional sentences as opposed to the structural complexity of English conditional sentences based on the DCT (Discourse Completion Task) data produced by four groups of subjects: twenty native speakers of Mandarin Chinese (NSMC), twenty native speakers of American English (NSAE), twenty advanced English learners of Mandarin Chinese (ELMC), and twenty advanced Chinese learners of American English (CLAE). It is hypothesized that in comparison with the DCT data produced by two control groups (NSMC & NSAE), the Chinese DCT data produced by the ELMC group will demonstrate less ill-formed structures than the English DCT data produced by the CLAE group. The presentation will reveal whether the above hypothesis is to be supported in light of the empirical data. Pedagogical implications will also be discussed.
Semantic Analysis of “ye” and its Pedagogical Grammar
Xiu-fen Jian, National Taiwan Normal University.
本文可分為兩部份，一是針對「也」進行語義分析，主要以Brown &Levinson’s Face Threat Assumptions(1978) 理論架構看「也」的語氣用法，筆者發現「也」的語氣用法並不只是「委婉」，它在人際互動過程中還具有維持或提升溝通雙方「面子」的機制。
另一部份著重在教學面，以鄧守信(近期發表的多篇論文)提出的教學語法為基礎架構，分為「也」的內部系統及外部系統進行教學探討；內部系統是指針對不同語義的「也」進行排序，外部系統則嘗試將「還」、「再」、「又」三個副詞與「也」一起進行教學排序。
Modality Adverbs and Chinese Pedagogy
Shuhui Su, University of Hawaii
Why are some modality adverbs like dou ‘all’, ye ‘also’ and jiu